Litigation and Alternatives free essay sample

America has come a long way since the American colonies settled from where humanity was to where humanity is now. We did not have the law system that we have now and issues were unresolved that turned into chaos. From law courts, chancery courts, to merchant courts, there are several categories of courts. Those that we separate are Federal and State Courts. Federal Courts take over foreign and interstate commerce that entail of U. S. District Courts, U. S. Court of Appeals, and U. S. Supreme Courts. State courts take over state legislatures that include State Supreme Courts, Appellate Courts, Trial Courts, and Lower Courts. Living in society today, we will have different views and different perceptions. We will either at one time come to face litigation or some type of ADR matter. With this being said, litigation, and alternatives will fall into place at least one point in ones life. We will write a custom essay sample on Litigation and Alternatives or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This is part of what both parties, as mentioned in the video will face. A company called â€Å"Quick Takes† tried out a program to help build their business to grow. Incidentally, the program Non Linear Pro did not quite work out for Quick Takes. Thankfully Quick Takes had been under the impression that Non Linear Pro was a trial. Under any circumstances had Quick Takes been under the assumption that Non Pro Linear had been a permanent program that had been purchased. Soon to discover a bill of 5,000. 00 was sent to Quick Takes. Quick Takes immediately contacted Non Linear Pro and advised that the bill had been invalid. Both parties had a verbal agreement of trying out the product as a trial. Although there may had been a verbal agreement, Quick Takes unknowingly signed a contract thought to be a delivery slip signed by Janet Mason. Non Linear Pro stated that the lease had been signed and if Quick Takes did not cooperate, then Non Linear Pro would create a lawsuit. So to name some of the legal issues that the two parties could face are arbitration, meditation, litigation, cross complaint, and mini-trials. Arbitration is an arbitrator that helps settle disputes between the two parties by researching the information provided by both parties. The arbitrator is a member of the American Arbitration Association who makes the ultimate decision of the outcome between the two parties by helping the two come to an agreement. The two parties will use arbitration when there is no need for a further relationship. Mediation is primarily used when there may be a future relationship between the two parties. The two parties come to an agreement and make the ultimate decision. A neutral party helps both parties come to an agreement; however, it does not make the ultimate decision. Mediation is primarily used when they can or may continue to maintain a relationship. Litigation also known as a judicial dispute resolution takes place in courts. The courts ultimately will make the decision of the outcome between the parties. Mini-Trials are a compromise between mediation and arbitration. Lawyers represent both parties and a neutral party is involved to help settle by advising of strengths and weaknesses. If the two parties do not come to an agreement in a timely matter then the neutral party will make the decision. Cross-complaint occurs when the defendant sues the plaintiff due to other damages caused by the plaintiff. The legal issues presented in the video are dealing with litigation. The plaintiff served the defendant and the defendant needs to respond or a default judgment will be entered. In this case, arbitration wil be the best method. I do not see a future in either party’s relationship. Most individuals will choose arbitration and mediation over litigation because it is cheaper, no lawyers are involved, and there is a lack of publicity. Reach out to as many sources to prevent any type of legal action. Having many options, the ultimate decision will impact heavily on the outcome.

How to Ride the Euphemistic Treadmill

How to Ride the Euphemistic Treadmill How to Ride the Euphemistic Treadmill How to Ride the Euphemistic Treadmill By Mark Nichol How do you refer to a person or people with characteristics outside the perceived norm? Why should you do so at all? Describing a person as belonging to a certain race or ethnic group or having a physical or mental disability, or commenting on a provocative or embarrassing topic, is a challenge on more than one level. Linguist and cognitive science Steven Pinker has called the first level of challenge â€Å"the euphemistic treadmill,† a form of pejoration (a shift of meaning to a negative connotation or a less sophisticated sense) or semantic change (an alteration of meaning). A word caught on the euphemistic treadmill is one that replaced an offensive or pejorative term but has itself become unfavorable. For example, the primary mode of reference to people in the United States of relatively recent African extraction (I employ modifiers here because all humans ultimately derive from Africa) has transformed repeatedly through recent history. Even now, no one term is universally preferred: â€Å"African American† and black (or Black) seem to be equally popular, and many publications use the terms interchangeably, but the otherwise obsolete (and offensive) term colored persists as well in the name of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, and some black people use the otherwise inexcusable word nigger in a neutral manner but are insulted if someone of another race utters it. In terms of condition rather than color, handicapped supplanted crippled as a description supposedly more respectful of those described, but many people, both members of that class and others, consider handicapped itself insulting because it, like crippled, emphasizes that people so described do not have the capabilities other people possess. (Similarly, writers are urged to avoid connotations of victimization: Write â€Å"Jones uses a wheelchair,† for example, rather than â€Å"Jones is bound to a wheelchair.†) A more recent trend has been to employ a people-first perspective, in which someone is described as â€Å"a person with disabilities,† rather than â€Å"a disabled person,† though some groups and movements reject this approach as a misguided politically correct complication. Why do these subjects have to be so complicated? We’re all genetic mongrels anyway, so why even refer to one’s race or ethnic origin? And why is it considered appropriate to comment on a person’s physical or mental condition at all? Of course, such descriptions are not always necessary, and they should be omitted when they’re irrelevant. But, for better or worse, ethnic identity and physical or mental ability is often pertinent to a discussion. So, we’re back to where we started how should a writer describe an individual or a community or group when such a detail is warranted? If you’re writing for a specific publication or for an organization, investigate whether it has a pertinent style or policy. If the subject matter is dealt with in a style guide or a handbook (for example, the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association), use that resource as a guide. Otherwise, if your subject is an individual, or the content describes an individual, ask that person. If that approach is not feasible, search the individual’s own documentation (such as a personal website or a blog on which the person describes himself or herself). In the case of a community or a group, seek guidance from a representative or, again, research original documentation for example, a print or online publication. Whatever you do, if it’s appropriate, integrate into your content as seamlessly as possible your rationale for using potentially controversial or less-than-universal terminology. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Program vs. Programme50 Idioms About Arms, Hands, and FingersOne Scissor?

The pro and con sides to using MULTIPLE CHOICE TESTS at the college Essay

The pro and con sides to using MULTIPLE CHOICE TESTS at the college level - Essay Example Scoring hundreds of long essays is impossible when time is short, and thus, examiners find it practically easy to mark multiple choice tests. The number of test-takers is also important. Multiple choice tests are famous for their practicality and reliability in this manner. They can be scored very easily through a computer scanner. This has also reduced the testing time. So, time is saved at every step while using multiple choice tests. Tamir suggests in his research that multiple choice tests are especially beneficial for those students who are not good at writing. Writing is a skill which every student does not possess; and, often times it so happens that those students pass with flying marks who are skilled at explaining the theoretical portion. Multiple choice questions benefit those who are skilled more at understanding concepts, whether or not they can write well. Now, let’s discuss the cons. Ajideh and Esfandiari compared the usage of multiple choice tests and cloze-tests while examining vocabulary proficiency of the students. The sample contained 21 Iranian EFL students. They found out that the students who performed on cloze-tests could have shown the similar results when they were examined through multiple choice tests. So, according to the researchers, multiple choice tests could be substituted for multiple choice tests. This explains that students’ proficiency does not increase when the method of examination is multiple choice tests. Woodford and Bancroft assert that when a student is examined through multiple choice questions, he has 25% possibility of guessing the right answer, even if he does not know the answer at all. He can guess by eliminating the possibly wrong answers, thus reaching the possibly correct answer. Thus, even if he does not possess sufficient knowledge, his right guessing may lead him to success. This is the discrepancy of multiple choice tests, which can be

Is Online Education Good or Bad Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Is Online Education Good or Bad - Essay Example As the essay stresses learning is a basic constituent in a person’s general personal as well as working life. In the past, students would attend ‘bricks and mortar’ classes to attain an education before entering the workforce. While this is still the main trend in the acquisition of education, the latter part of the 20th century has seen more students take advantage of courses that are offered online. There are many universities today that offer lectures online for students who may be unable to attend classes for one reason or another. There are also online based colleges that promise degrees for a much less price than traditional bricks-and-mortar institutions.  This discussion highlights that  the online courses offered by bricks-and-mortar institutions are, for the most part, genuine because they identify with the recognized universities that offer them. Moreover, there are the online-based universities that offer all their lectures online. Many of such ins titutions are not usually accredited. The online environment provides numerous opportunities for people situated in different parts of the world to be able to benefit from various educational courses. Indeed, its original objective was to provide a more cost-effective way for people without the financial resources required by traditional colleges to be able to benefit from a college education. Moreover, there are people who have established universities online that claim to offer courses to all people at cheaper prices than those of bricks-and-mortar universities. For most such institutions, the delivery of high quality education is not an important objective. There are different factors that illustrate concerns about such institutions. Some of these include: The Role of Commercialization in Online Education. Lectures from online-based institutions are not appropriate for students because these institutions are mainly concerned with benefiting from commercialization, and are, thus, quite self-serving (Anderson, 45). Even though it is not a fact that is admitted often by the chief academic officers of online-based universities, most officials of such institutions are mainly concerned with the bottom line. This is because they get rewarded for creating policies that result in higher enrollments, greater retention of registered students, and higher levels of success. According to Noble, â€Å"universities are aware that they can get and keep more students by offering online courses which are cheap in comparison to traditional classes†, (Noble, 26). This is why they charge more for the introduction of newer courses which they then add to the curriculum. So far, online education from online-based institutions is the fastest growing industry in the for-profit sector (Donaldson, Agra, Alshammari, Bailey, Bowdoin, Kendle, Nixon, and Wressell, 49). It has also been aggressively promoted by for-profit universities and colleges. It is marketed because it saves cos ts by delivering lessons to thousands of students simultaneously, thus decreasing instructional costs.

Week 4 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Week 4 - Assignment Example The risk management could aid in the development of the Comet in several ways to avoid the problems that emanated. The risk management could have engaged in risk identification and assessment. This could be done through proper risk analysis to establish the potential impacts of such risks. This could help in coming up with mitigative measures to such risks early enough. In addition, the risk management could have aided through monitoring of such risks and offering professional advices to de Havilland Aircraft Company regarding such risks. in addition, the risk management could have helped in ensuring design testing for the Comet to ascertain the credibility of the aircraft for its operations. There are several risks associated with any invention. These may include technical risks, financial risks, commercial risks and psychological risks. In addition, sociological risks also form part of the risks associated with innovations. In relation to the Comet, technological risks, sociological and financial risks were evident. A lot of money was invested in the design of the aircraft. In addition, several funds were invested in the manufacturing industry of the Comet. This money was invested in creating a streamlined airplane that could comfortable carry the passengers amidst maintaining aerodynamics at relatively high speeds (Case Study 7.1. Classic Case: de Havilland’s Falling Comet). Technological risks associated in the comet’s case involve the repeated accidents that befell the aircrafts leading to loss of several lives. This follows the new and radical features in such aircrafts. These new features were too risky and were associated with the explosions of fuse lages, as well as, metal fatigue from the wings of the aircrafts. The success of innovations majorly depends on the time taken to come up with such discoveries. Investing

Mitochondrial Dna And Genetic Evidence Biology Essay

Mitochondrial Dna And Genetic Evidence Biology Essay Introduction: The Out of Africa model, also referred to as the African origins, total replacement, Noahs ark or Eve model is one model suggesting the origins of humankind. This model hypothesizes that the evolution of the modern humankind from their archaic ancestors occurred in one place at the one time. It suggests that modern humans arose as a new species about 150,000 years ago and that this took place in Africa. It was after this speciation event that the modern humans moved out of Africa, replacing all non-African archaic populations. Africa was identified as the origin of Homo sapiens because of the high genetic diversity among Africans. It is much higher than the genetic diversity of other populations around the world. The further away, geographically, from Africa the less genetically diverse the populations are. The last regions to be settled, for instance South America and the Pacific Islands, have the lowest genetic diversity. This review will focus on the evidence obtained from mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomal DNA. Both mtDNA and Y-chromosomal DNA are non-recombinant and their inheritance is easier to analysis than for other parts of the genome. MtDNA is only inherited through the maternal line and can therefore be used to determine the female lineage. Analysis of mtDNA revealed a series of population bottlenecks and a progressive loss of diversity moving away from East Africa. The Y-chromosome is passed from father to son and can be used to determine the male lineage. The Y chromosome does not undergo recombination because it is so different from the X chromosome that they dont swap information. This means that the Y-chromosome passed on is the same in father and son (unless it undergoes mutation) making it useful for studying the male lineage. Mutations of both mtDNA and Y-chromosomal DNA accumulate at a fairly constant rate over time, making them useful for estimating the time of human population sp lits. Mitochondrial DNA is also a very good indicator of migration routes and range expansion due to its high distribution and variation. The first lineage to branch off from mitochondrial eve is the L0 haplogroup. The L1, L2 and L3 haplogroups are all descendant of this L0 lineage and are largely confined to Africa. L3 subdivided into the macro haplogroups M and N. These are the lineages found outside of Africa with a low frequency in Africa. The Y-chromosomal haplogroup DE is limited to Africa. Haplogroup F originated in either North Africa or in South Asia. If it originated in North Africa it would indicate a second out of Africa migration. There are two possible scenarios for modern humans dispersal out of Africa. The first suggests a single migration in which only about 150 people left Africa by crossing the Red Sea. The second possibility is that there were two migrations out of Africa. Haplogroup M left by crossing the Red Sea, travelling along the coast to India taking the Southern route. Haplogroup N is thought to have followed the Nile from East Africa, headed north and crossed into Asia via the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt. Historical Background: Charles Darwin was one of the first to propose the idea that the ancestor of the modern human originated in Africa. In his book The Descent of Man he proposed that all living organism originated from a common ancestor and he outlined his views that man descended from apes. He stated that in each great region of the world the living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same region. It is, therefore, probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by extinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as these two species are now mans nearest allies, it is somewhat more probable that our early progenitors lived on the African continent than elsewhere. But it is useless to speculate on this subject, for an ape nearly as large as a man, namely the Dryopithecus of Lartet, which was closely allied to the anthropomorphous Hylobates, existed in Europe during the Upper Miocene period; and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone many great revolut ions, and there has been ample time for migration on the largest scale. Here he is saying that if his theory of common descent was correct and that man really did descend from apes then it would be likely that man originated in Africa as Africa was the region inhabited at that time by apes. Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam: Mitochondrial eve is the matrilineal most recent common ancestor, estimated to have lived about 200,000 years ago. All living peoples mitochondrial DNA is descended from hers. She was thought to have lived in East Africa and her discovery supported the theory that all modern humans originated in Africa and migrated from there. Y-chromosome Adam is the patrilineal most recent common ancestor, estimated to have lived between 90,000 to 60,000 years ago. He was also believed to have originated in Africa. The original paper supporting the Out of Africa theory was written by Cann et al in 1987. In which they found evidence that the MRCA lived in Africa about 200,000 years ago. They studied mitochondrial DNA from one hundred and forty seven people between five different populations, African, Asian, Australian, Caucasian and New Guinean. They found that out of the one hundred and forty seven mtDNA mapped, 133 were distinct from each other. Using the parsimony method they constructed a tree relating the 133 types of human mtDNA and the reference sequence: Figure 1: Genealogical tree for 134 types of human mtDNA. The tree accounts for the site differences observed between restriction maps of these mtDNAs with 398 mutations. No other order of branching tested is more parsimonious than this one. This order of branching was obtained by ignoring every site present in only one type of mtDNA or absent in only one type and confining attention to the remaining 93 polymorphic sites. The computer programme produces an unrooted network which was converted into a tree by placing the root (arrow) at the midpoint of the longest path connecting the two lineages. The numbers refer to mtDNA types found in more than one individual. (both figure and text taken from Cann et al, 1987) This is a tree of minimum length. On this tree there are two primary branches, one composed of Africans only and the other composed of all five populations studied. From this tree it was suggested that Africa was the source of the human mitochondrial gene pool. This is because two of the primary branches lead solely to African mtDNAs and the second branch also leads to African mtDNAs. The common ancestor a must be of African origin in order to minimise the number of migrations that occurred. This tree also indicates that every population except for Africa must have multiple origins. For example, mtDNA type 49 is New Guinean but its nearest relative is not New Guinean and is in fact Asian. New Guinea seems to have been colonised by at least seven maternal lineages. This seems to be the same for all other populations apart from Africa. By assuming that human mitochondrial DNA sequence divergence accumulates at a constant rate they were able to work out that the common ancestor, Mitocho ndrial Eve of all surviving mtDNA types existed 140,000 to 290,000 years ago. The mtDNA results do not show when the migrations out of Africa took place. Nuclear DNA studies carried out based on polymorphic blood groups, red cell enzymes and serum proteins showed that differences between racial groups are smaller than within and that the largest gene frequency differences are between Africans and other populations. This supports the Out of Africa theory because it suggests that the human nuclear gene pool also originated in Africa. (Cann et al, 1987) The Genetic Evidence: The technique used to deduce the colonization pattern of the world is coalescence. This theory is a population genetics model based on the genealogy of gene copies and favours the Out of Africa theory. It describes the characteristics of the joining of lineages back in time to a common ancestor.This lineage joining is referred to as coalescence. The theory provides a way of estimating the expected time to coalescence and establishing the relationships of coalescence times to population size, and age of the most recent common ancestor. This theory makes use of the fact that genetic drift over time will result in the extinction of lineages. This means that any sample of DNA markers will coalesce to a common ancestor when looking backward from the present day generation. The limitation of this theory is that all genetic variation coalesces to the MRCA and as a result the population history before this MRCA is unknown. Genomic phylogenetics reconstruction is necessary to assume the dispe rsal routes of early modern humans. Mitochondrial DNA evidence: A study was carried out by Ingman et al describing the global human diversity in humans based on analyses of the complete mtDNA sequence of 53humans of varied origins. They created a neighbour-joining phylogram on complete mtDNA sequences: Figure 2: Neighbour joining phylogram based on complete mtDNA genome sequences (excluding the D-loop). The population origin of the individual is given at the twigs. Individuals of African descent are found below the dashed line and non-Africans above. The node marked with an asterisk refers to the MRCA of the youngest clade containing both African and non-African indivdulals. (Both figure and text taken from Ingman et al, 2000) In this tree, the three deepest branches lead to exlusively African mtDNAs and the fourth deepest branch contains both African and non-African mtDNA. The deepest branch provides excellent support for the origin of human mtDNA in Africa. The amount of mtDNA sequence diversity among Africans is more than double that of non-Africans. This suggests that ther is a longer genetic history for African mtDNA than for non-African mtDNA. The star shaped phylogeny of the non -African sequences suggest a population bottleneck. This is more than likely associatd with the colonisation of Euroasia from Africa, in which the previous populations are replaced with the modern humans dispersal into Euroasia. The figures below show the mtDNA mismatch distributions for Africans and non-Africans The mtDNA from the non-Africans show a bell-shaped distribution , indicating a recent population expansion. The mtDNA from individuals of African origin show a ragged distribution, indicating a constant population size. Figure 3: Mismatch distributions of pairwise nucleotide differences between mtDNA genomes (excluding the D-loop) a) African; b) Non-African. (Both figure and text taken from Ingman et al, 2000) The initial Homo sapiens population dynamics and dispersal routes remain poorly understood. The mtDNA phylogeny can be collapsed into two sister branches L0 and L123456 (L15). The L15 group is more widespread and has given rise to almost all mtDNA lineages found today. The non-African genetic diversity being formed from two subclades of the L3 branch, M and N. Some of the L clades show significant phylogeographic structure in Africa, such as the localization of L1c1a to Central Africa and L0d and L0k to the Khosian people.(Behar et al, 2008) Analysis of the complete mtDNA sequences of Khosian people suggests the divided from other modern humans no later than 90,000 years ago. This reveals evidence for the existence of an early maternal structure in the history of Homo sapiens. L0abfk split over 133,000 years ago. Since this split the expansion of L0d, L0k, L0abf and L15 clades have progressed in an uneven way. L0d and L0k localized in South Africa, giving rise to the Khosian people and L0abf and L15spread all over the world giving rise to all non-Khosian populations. These maternal southern and eastern populations remained isolated from each other for a long period of time. This isolation suggests the formation of small, independent populations in Africa instead of the previously thought uniform spread of modern humans. (Behar et al, 2008) Mitochondrial DNA L haplogroups: Single nucleotide polymorphism studies have shown that human mitochondrial DNA can be classified into groups of related haplotypes. An early paper by Chen et al analysed mitochondrial DNA variation in Africa, revealing continent specific groups of mtDNA haplotypes (haplogroups). There is an HpaI site gain at nucleotide pair (np) 3592 which is found in sub-Saharan populations with a low frequency in populations which have been known to have mixed with Africans. The mtDNA that contain the HpaI site at np 3592 form the most divergent mtDNA haplogroups in the world. Continent specific polymorphisms characterize mtDNAs from European, Asian and Native American populations. These continent specific polymorphisms have a high frequency in one continental population and are specific to either European, Asian or Native American populations. These mutations took place after the genetic separation of the ancestral population that formed the modern human ethnic groups. The oldest and the largest haplogroup in each continent is usually the one that is the most divergent. All the mtDNAs associated with the HpaI site gain at np 3 592 all come from the same common ancestor. These cluster in the L haplogroup. This haplogroup is subdivided into theL0, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 and L6 sub-haplogroups by additional polymorphisms. The L haplogroup and L1 and L2 sub- haplogroups are said to be of ancient origin due to their dominance in sub-Saharan populations. The ages of these haplogroups were determined from the assumption that nucleotide substitution accumulates at a constant rate. The age of haplogroup L is between 98,000 and 130,000 years, haplogroup L1 is between 86,000 and 113,000 years and haplogroup L2 is between 59,000 and 78,000 years. Comparison of the sequence divergence of the L haplogroup determined that the African haplogroup is the most divergent. The approximate ages for the continent specific haplogroups agree with the theory that all modern humans have a common ancestor from an ancestral population in Africa. These ages also agree with the suggested times of dispersal and migration of the modern human populations into the other continents. The age of the haplogroup L could indicate that this haplogroup originated before modern humans dispersed from Africa. However, the haplogroups L1 and L2 were not carried from Africa by the modern human populations that migrated to the Middle East and Asia. Instead another haplogroup must have participated in this migration. There are mtDNAs that do not contain the HpaI site gain in np 3592. These were found in sub-Saharan populations and suggest that there were some mtDNAs without the 3592 HpaI site that originated in Africa. They are widely distributed in sub-Saharan populations and most likely have an ancient African origin. These mtDNAs are similar to mtDNAs in Europe and Asia and seem to be the only mtDNAs carried out of Africa by migration of the modern humans. They gave rise to the non-African modern human populations and are now know to be haplogroup L3. This paper exhibits data that confirms that there was a high sequence divergence w ithin Africans compared to the rest of the world thereby supporting the Out of Africa Theory. There is less sequence divergence in Asians than in Africans. Native American populations have the lowest values of sequence divergence. (Chen et al, 1995) The minimum coalescence age for modern humans has been estimated to be between 156,000 and 169,000 years before present. Analysis of the L haplogroup has been carried out in order to find those sub-haplogroups involved in the migration of modern humans out of Africa. The L0 haplogroup is the earliest descendant of mitochondrial Eve and is a sister group to the L1 haplogroup. L0 is subdivided into L0a, L0d, L0f and L0k. L0a is thought to have originated in Eastern Africa and is dominant in Ethiopia. The idea that east Africa is the most likely region for L0a variation is further supported by the phylogeny of the L0 clade. L0d and L0k originated in Southern African. L0f is rare and confined to East Africa. The relationship between L0d and L0k is still uncertain. The first ancient split from this into L1b/c occurred over 120,000 years ago. The L1 haplogroup is divided into L1b and L1c. L1b is common in Western Africa and L1c is frequent among central African Bantu speakers. See figure__ for the relationship between these two haplogroups. FIG. 3.-Phylogenetic tree of mtDNA genomes (excluding the d-loop) obtained by maximum likelihood Bayesian analysis. The split into the L2 lineage occurred in Africa over The L2 lineage is divided into two sub-clades L2a1 and L2b. A mutation at np12693 characterizes the L2a1 clade. Ethiopian L2a1 sequences contain mutations at the np 16189 and the np 16309. L2a1c contains mutations at np 16209, 16301 and 16354. L2a1a has a mutation at np 16286. L2a1a is found mostly in South-Eastern Africa. The split into the L3 sub-clade occurred over 59,000 years ago in Africa. The most frequent of the L3 sub-clades is the L3f haplogroup. This haplogroup seems to be confined to East Africa. However, there is an occurrence of variations of this clade in West Africa indicating an early dispersal of the L3f1 lineages. L3f1 is characterized by two mutations in its coding region. The L3 haplogroup is subdivided into three clades, L3i, L3x and L3w. Haplogroup L3i contains a transition at np 7645. It was also found to occur within a sister group of W haplogroup lineages in Eurasia. The L3x haplogroup is characterized by transitions at nps 6401, 13708 and 16169. This haplogroup is very frequent among Ethiopians, especially among the Oromos. It can be sub divided into two clades, L3x1 and L3x2. These two clades are confined to the Horn of Africa and the Nile Valley. The L3w haplogroup contains substitutions at nps 15388 and 16260. This haplogroup is confined to East and North-eastern Africa. L 3b and L3e haplogroups are found in West Africa and Bantu-speaking populations in South-east Africa. The L3d haplogroup is mostly found in Western Africa. It is divided into the two sub-clades L3d1 and L3d2. The L3d1 sub clade has a high frequency in South-East Africa. L3d2 is characterised by transcriptions at nps 15358 and 16256. These occur in Western Africa. Ethiopian L3d2 lineages contain a transition at np 16368 and this is not found anywhere else in Africa. The L3 clade is more related to Eurasian haplogroups than to African clusters of the L1 and L2 haplogroups. L4 is an early branch from L3. It is divided into two sub-clades by three coding and three control region markers. Substitutions at nps 195, 198, 7376, 16207 and 16260 characterise the L4a1 haplogroup. L4g was previously named L3g but it was found to share ancestral character states at nps 769 and 1018 with haplogroup L4a. It is mostly found in Ethiopia. L4a and L4g have high haplotype frequencies and sequence diversity in Ethiopians.The L5 haplogroup is divided into L5a and L5b. L5a is found almost exclusively in East Africa. L5 b on the other hand is spread through Southern Africa.The L6 haplogroup contains six coding transitions and one control region transition. This haplogroup is thought to have originated in East Africa. It is a sister clade of the L2, L3 and L4 are all frequent there, giving support to this theory. The mtDNA tree splits at its core layers into branches that carry exclusively African sequences and just one, L3, which the Africans share with the rest of the world. All non-African mtDNA lineages are derived from just two branches, M and N, branching from the root of the L3 haplogroup. These also give rise to a number of sub-clades specific only to African populations. The N haplogroup gives rise to a daughter clade, R, which is also a founder of extant non-African populations. The first informative split in the mtDNA tree with regards to phylogeny occurs at the level of L3/M, N, R clades. The next informative split in the mtDNA tree distinguishes all major continents excluding America beneath the M, N and R founders. The M and N Haplogroups: The M1 haplogroup has a high frequency in Ethiopia. It has two subclades, M1a and M1b. M1a contains a transition at np 16359. It can be found in Near Eastern, Caucasus and in European populations. The M1b group is smaller and confined to East Africa. Both M1a and M1b are rare in North Africa. Another clade, M1c, is present in Northern Africa, the Canary Islands and the Near East. This clade is characterized by a transition at np 16185. The N (preHV) haplogroup is the most frequent in Ethiopian lineages. This lineage occurs in populations in the Near East, Southern Caucasia and North Africa. Y-chromosomal DNA evidence: The Y chromosome Consortium (2002) tree was updated in a paper by Karafet et al in 2008. This tree identifies the 18 major clades, A to R, in the Y chromosome tree. There are five paragroups that were not based on a derived character and they represent the interior nodes of the tree. There are 243 different mutational events that give rise to 153 non recombining Y chromosome haplogroups. The C and FT haplogroups were united by the P143 mutation. These haplogroups contain lineages that are not usually found in sub-Saharan Africa. The C-FR chromosome must have been carried out of Africa early on in the dispersal out of Africa. The IJ clade is joined by seven mutations and the NO clade is joined by six mutations. The M lineage is joined to two K haplogroups by the P256 marker into the M super clade. Diagram p4 from the revised Y chromosome haplogroup tree. Two mutations, M91 and P97, identify Clade A. This clade is one of the most base haplogroups on the Y-chromosome tree and is almost entirely confined to Africa, being most frequent in Khosian, Ethiopian and Sudanese populations. Clade B is characterized by four mutations and is also almost completely restricted to Africa, mostly confined to sub-Saharan Africa with the highest frequencies in Pygmy populations. The C haplogroup is identified by five mutations. It has not been found in African populations and may have an originated in Asia after the dispersal of modern humans out of Africa. Haplogroup D is defined by two mutations. This haplogroup is also thought to have originated in Asia as it has not been found anywhere else. These lineages are found almost completely in Central Asia and Japan with a low frequency in Southeast Asia and the Andaman Islands. Clade E is identified by 18 mutations and is the most mutationally diverse Y chromosomal haplogroup. These are found mostly in Af rica with moderate frequencies in the Middle East and low frequencies in Central and South Asia. The FT clade is defined by 25 mutations. The F* paragroups has a low frequency in India. The G clade is identified by two mutations and is divided into two subclades, G1 and G2. This clade is mostly present in the Middle East, the Mediterranean and the Caucasus Mountains. Haplogroup H is characterized by one mutation and is divided into two subclades, h1 and H2. This group is almost exclusive to the Indian subcontinent. Clade I is characterised by six mutations and is sub-divided into two subclades, I1 and I2. This clade represents two of the major European Y chromosome haplogroups with clade I1 being found mostly in Northern Europe and clade I2 is widespread in Eastern Europe and the Balkans. Clade J is defined by three mutations and is divided into two major subclades, J1 and J2, and also contains a paragroup J*. These lineages are found at high frequencies in North Africa, the Middle East, Europe, Central Asia, Pakistan and India. Haplogroup K is defined by the derived state at four sites and the ancestral state at the mutations that characterize the L, M, NO, P, S and T lineages. There is a paragroup K* and four different lineages characterized by five mutations. The K1 haplogroup is found at a low frequency in India and the K2, K3 and K4 haplogroups are found in Oceania, Indonesia and Australia. The L haplogroup is characterized by six mutations and the majority of this haplogroup is found in India, with the L haplogroup also being present in the Middle East, Asia, Northern Africa and along the Mediterranean coast. The M superclade contains 19 internal mutations. This lineage is confined to Oceania and eastern Indonesia. The N haplogroup is defined by 10 mutations and is restricted to Northern Eurasia. Clade O is defined by four mutations and is a major haplogroup in East Asia. It is also found at a low frequency in Central Asia and Oceania. Haplogroup contain s the Q and R lineages. Clade Q is characterized by the M242 mutation and is distributed in North Eurasia with a high frequency in some Siberian groups. It is also found in Europe, East Asia and the Middle East and is the major lineage in native Americans. Cade R is defined by eight mutations and is the major y chromosomal lineage of Europeans. Clade S is defined by three mutations and is mostly found in Oceania and Indonesia. Clade T is identified by six mutations and is divided into two subclades found at a low frequency in Africa, Europe and the Middle East. The two primary splits in this tree lead to the A and B haplogroups, both of which are restricted to Africa. These are genetically diverse and have sub-haplogroups geographically distinct from each other. The remainder of the deep structures of the phylogeny are characterized by three sub-clusters that coalesce at the root of the CR-M168 node. These represent all the African haplogroups and all the non African haplogroups. There is a shared presence of the De haplogroup in Africa and Asia. The C haplogroup is a non African haplogroup and is widely distributed in East Asia, Oceania and North America. The haplogroup F-M89 is another non African cluster that is distributed all around the world. The F* and H haplogroups are restricted to Asia, the I haplogroup in Europe and the J haplogroup in the Middle East. Apart from the A and B haplogroups all other Y chromosome haplogroups descend from one ancestral node, CDEF which is defined by the mutations M168 and M294. This node is split into the C, DE and F haplogroups and these make up the majority of African and non African affiliated chromosomes. Due to the fact that the A and B haplogroups originate in Africa it was proposed the CDEF node also originated in Africa. An African origin of the DE haplogroup was supported with the detection of the DE* chromosome in Nigeria and by the recognition of the D-M174 haplogroup. See figure8d page 555 from Underhill It was proposed that two independent founder types D and CF evolved out of Africa (see figure above) The common ancestry of C and F founder types was supported by a single mutation, implying the diversification of CF from DE was shortly followed by they split of C from F. Although the D and E haplogroups share a common ancestry there is a geographic distance existing between the two of them. The D haplogroup is widely distributed in Asia and the E haplogroup is frequent in Africa. This suggests long term isolation and extinction of descendants in the area between Africa and Asia. Upon analysis of the Y chromosome it is clear that North Africa is genetically similar to the Middle East and there is a clear genetic difference between North-Western Africa and Sub-Sahara Africa and Europe. The lineages most prevalent to North Africa are absent in both Europe and sub-Saharan Africa. E3b2 is most common in North Africa, R1b is common in Europe and E3a is common in many sub-Saharan areas. This suggests that there was limited gene flow between North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa and Europe. E3b2 is rare outside of North Africa and the other dominant haplogroup J* in North Africa reaches its highest frequency in the Middle East indicating that there was gene flow between these two populations. It has been proposed that the J haplogroup originated in the Middle East. The M35 lineage is thought to have originated in East Africa due to its high frequency and diversity there. It is thought to have given rise to the M81 lineage, E3b2, that is found in North Africa. (Arredi et al, 2004) Exodus from Africa: The migration out of Africa is thought to have occurred over 100,000 years ago and is believed to have led to the later colonization of the rest of the world. The first evidence of the existence of modern humans outside of Africa has been dated to over 80,000 years ago. However, this was an isolated incidence and is thought to represent an early offshoot that has since died out. Successful migrations are believed to have occurred between 45,000 and 75,000 years ago. There are two scenarios describing modern humans dispersal from Africa. The first suggests a single migration event took place. This theory proposes that only about 150 people left Africa crossing the red sea. This is because only the descendants of one lineage, L3, are found outside Africa. The M and N haplogroups are rare in Africa and seem to have arrived recently. This may be a result of mutations in the L3 haplogroup arising in East Africa just before the dispersal out of Africa or may have arisen shortly after the m igration from Africa. The second scenario suggests a multiple dispersal model. This indicates that the M haplogroup crossed the Red Sea, travelled along the coast and arrived in India and the N haplogroup headed North, trailing the Nile and crossed into Asia through the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt. This group divided and went in several different directions. Some went east into Asia and others went to Europe. This scenario might clarify why the N haplogroup is predominant in Europe and the M haplogroup is absent. Mitochondrial evidence for the dispersal from Africa: Mitochondrial DNA analysis of present day African lineages points to a rapid population growth in the ancestral African population. Studies revealed a peak in African populations about 80,000 years ago with similar peaks in Asia and Europe somewhere between 60,000 and 40,000 years ago. This evidence shows a rapid increase in the African population much earlier than in Europe or Asia indicating expansion in Africa due to dispersion from a small population to other parts of the continent. There was an expansion of the L2 and L3 mitochondrial lineages about 80,000 and 60,000 years ago. Population diversity among African populations: There seems to be limited haplotype sharing among northern, eastern and Sub-Saharan Africans. Some haplotypes are common in one area but missing from the others. Chromosomes with the PN2 T and DYS271 A alleles are common in both northern and eastern Africa. These have been divided into different haplotypes, one of which bears the M81 mutation and is present in some Northern African populations and absent in Eastern African populations. There has been a population expansion in Northern Africa suggested by the age and the high frequency of the M81 haplotypes in north-western Africa. The spread of haplotypes 22 and 24, both of which contain the DYS271 allele, has erased pre-existing genetic differences among different regions in sub-Saharan Africa. Haplotypes 22, 24 and 41 have an extremely high frequency in Sub-Saharan Africans. It is thought that haplotype 41 was involved in the expansion of Bantu-speaking populations from western Africa into southern Africa. This is supported by the fact that the variance of haplotype 41 is much higher in the central western Africa than in southern Khosians. This is also true for the 22 and 24 haplotypes. An Eastern African origin: The oldest remains of modern humans were found in eastern and southern Ethiopia and have been dated to over 160,000 years ago. Eastern Africa is thought to be the origin of the earliest migrations of modern humans out of Africa. The M haplogroup has been found in high frequencies in Ethiopia and Asia. The presence of the Asian mtDNA haplogroup M is unique to Ethiopia. These two regions have a different variation o

Local Fundraising :: essays research papers fc

Running an election campaign is very strenuous and time consuming. In many ways it is a balancing act. One must deal with maintaining public visibility, appealing to the voters, developing a platform, kissing disgusting babies, and meeting as many people as possible. However, one of the most important and difficult parts of the job is raising money. Money is necessary for all parts of the campaign, and without it, a campaign can grind to a halt. In this paper I will attempt to explain how a candidate gets the money to campaign.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first thing to do, whenever one runs for any office, is to check all local laws pertaining to elections and contributions. In any county, there often are obscure laws that affect a myriad of subjects, elections being among them. These laws usually state who can give money to whom and how much can be given by any one person or organization. Violating these laws may result in an automatic forfeiture. Another important step is to make sure that you, yourself, contribute to your own campaign. It does not have to be much, as many candidates do not come from wealthy backgrounds, but enough to show that you are serious about winning the election. After all, if you are not confident enough to contribute your own money, how can you expect others to contribute for you? The third step that many hopeful candidates use is to approach their friends and family for money. While some may be hesitant to do this, one expert, who curiously did not leave his name (Basic Fundraising, n.d.), says that this is important. Your friends and family should be asked, firstly, for the reason outlined in the preceding paragraph, and secondly because this is where a candidate gets much of his or her initial seed money. A viral approach, according to Garecht, should be used when asking associates for money (n.d.e). Ask your family and friends to ask all their family and friends, who should, in turn, ask all of their family and friends. Of course, not everyone will contribute, but by playing the percentages, a candidate can expect to receive thousands of dollars, even if he or she is not from a particularly affluent social circle. If a person is unwilling to contribute monetarily, ask if he would like to volunteer either his time or services, or even there lawn for use as signage.

Herbal Supplements Essay

One of the most heavily debated topics in pharmaceuticals is the regulation of prescription drugs versus over the counter herbal supplements. The Food and Drug Administration, the FDA, studies prescription drugs for years before releasing and allowing them to be prescribed to the public. Up until 2010, the FDA was able to regulate herbal supplements (1). The information I came across was new and shocking to me for I am guilty of taking a few herbal supplements, and my parents take multiple on a daily basis. I did not know that products can claim a nutrient deficiency, support health, or are linked to specific body functions without the FDA’s approval (1). Even though these botanical and all natural herbal supplements are almost everywhere, they do not mean that they are safe for anyone’s use! Many of these supplements contain strong ingredients that could potentially harm ones body. The FDA only controls an herbal supplements strength, purity, and composition before releasing it onto the market (1). In 2004 the FDA banned ephedra, an herbal supplement used to treat asthma, hay fever, and the common cold (2). The herbal supplement was causing extreme side effects in many users including heart attacks and some deaths. I found that Kava has led to liver problems and resulting in some users having to go as far as to geting a liver transplant (3). The supplement Comfrey was found to be linked to ulcers and Pennyroyal was found to be linked to kidney and liver damage (3). It makes one wonder how these supplements were allowed to be sold in the first place with all this lack of testing and all these extreme side effects. Webmd.com said that almost all supplements contain contaminents (3)! I was not aware that I was putting my health into risk from buying products said to be â€Å"natural† and â€Å"herbal†, but actually and are easily sold at almost every local convenience store. It has been said that â€Å"herbal supplements should be regulated the same way as prescription drugs†. I agree with this statement for there has proven to be risk in taking herbal supplements. Almost all herbal supplements are released to the public whereas a series of tests have to be done before a drug in the pharmaceutical industry is approved and released, leaving only a small ending percentage of the originally tested drugs to be released. Both  herbal supplements and prescription drugs influence ones body through chemical procedures and, therefore, should be treated and regulated equally. Both drugs could potentially cause harm to someone. I believe that the government should form new policies regulating herbal supplements I was not aware of the potential dangers and lack of regulation in these â€Å"natural† medicines. I will definitely be a lot more careful and do more research before blindly purchasing one again. Webmd.com shows ways to research and test these herbal supplements before using them for they are very risky (3). I think everyone should be knowledgeable on this topic for this is just new information to me. SOURCES CITED (1)http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/herbal-supplements/SA00044 (2)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephedra (3)http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-and-supplements/features/risky-herbal-supplements

Free Essays on Classifications Of Foods

According to Jelliffe, the world’s foods fall into five main classifications. First are the ‘Cultural super foods’. These foods supply the major caloric load for a peoples. Some excellent examples of these types of foods include rice as a staple food in India and a good portion of Asia. The importance of such foods is highlighted by taking on a symbolism, as rice symbolizes fertility in India. (Kittler and Sucher, p. 374). The next category of foods is the ‘social-prestige’ foods. These are the foods reserved for important people or occasions. Chickens were one of these social-prestige foods for Africans. It was afforded this status in West Africa, and when they were brought to the United States as slaves (p. 186). Following, are the foods that fall into the ‘sympathetic-magic’ category. One finds the physical qualities about these foods tell one about its effects. The opening of coconuts by Hindu worshipers on temple grounds represents what this group of foods is all about. The human ego is represented by the hard shell. Then, opened, the sweet, soft meat is open to becoming one with the Supreme Being, and this represents the inner self. (p. 82). Then one would find the ‘body-image foods’. These are the health foods, most simply put. The Puerto Rican custom of drinking eggnog or malt-type beverages to improve vitality is an outstanding example in our own backyard, of this classification of foods. (.p 289) Finally, Jelliffe categorized the ‘physiological group’. These foods are beneficial for a certain physical group. The use of herbs most clearly illustrated this. Cottonwood, in its effective use to ease childbirth in the Polynesian culture amply illustrated the point of physiological groups. (p. 329) The division of foods into these five groups allows us to get a broader, cross-cultural understanding of foods and their uses and meaning. Although Jelliffe simplified this categorizat... Free Essays on Classifications Of Foods Free Essays on Classifications Of Foods According to Jelliffe, the world’s foods fall into five main classifications. First are the ‘Cultural super foods’. These foods supply the major caloric load for a peoples. Some excellent examples of these types of foods include rice as a staple food in India and a good portion of Asia. The importance of such foods is highlighted by taking on a symbolism, as rice symbolizes fertility in India. (Kittler and Sucher, p. 374). The next category of foods is the ‘social-prestige’ foods. These are the foods reserved for important people or occasions. Chickens were one of these social-prestige foods for Africans. It was afforded this status in West Africa, and when they were brought to the United States as slaves (p. 186). Following, are the foods that fall into the ‘sympathetic-magic’ category. One finds the physical qualities about these foods tell one about its effects. The opening of coconuts by Hindu worshipers on temple grounds represents what this group of foods is all about. The human ego is represented by the hard shell. Then, opened, the sweet, soft meat is open to becoming one with the Supreme Being, and this represents the inner self. (p. 82). Then one would find the ‘body-image foods’. These are the health foods, most simply put. The Puerto Rican custom of drinking eggnog or malt-type beverages to improve vitality is an outstanding example in our own backyard, of this classification of foods. (.p 289) Finally, Jelliffe categorized the ‘physiological group’. These foods are beneficial for a certain physical group. The use of herbs most clearly illustrated this. Cottonwood, in its effective use to ease childbirth in the Polynesian culture amply illustrated the point of physiological groups. (p. 329) The division of foods into these five groups allows us to get a broader, cross-cultural understanding of foods and their uses and meaning. Although Jelliffe simplified this categorizat...

Memorial Day Quotes and Sayings

Memorial Day Quotes and Sayings On Memorial Day, we commemorate the  soldiers who sacrificed their lives in battles to win or preserve our freedom. Many of them were young men and women who did not live long enough to fully experience the privileges that they fought to sustain. Use these Memorial Day quotes and sayings to honor their sacrifice. Francis A. Walker: We come, not to mourn our dead soldiers, but to praise them.Francis Marion Crawford: They fell, but oer their glorious grave floats free the banner of the cause they died to save.Daniel Webster: Although no sculptured marble should rise to their memory, nor engraved stone bear record of their deeds, yet will their remembrance be as lasting as the land they honored.Lucy Larcom: Life hangs as nothing in the scale against dear Liberty!Marcus Garvey: Chance has never yet satisfied the hope of a suffering people. Action, self-reliance, the vision of self and the future have been the only means by which the oppressed have seen and realized the light of their own freedom.Elizabeth Barrett Browning: And each man stand with his face in the light of his own drawn sword. Ready to do what a hero can.George F. Kennan: Heroism ... is endurance for one moment more.George Henry Boker: Fold him in his countrys stars. Roll the drum and fire the volley! What to him are all our wars, what but death be mocking folly? Benjamin Harrison: I have never been able to think of the day as one of mourning; I have never quite been able to feel that half-masted flags were appropriate on Decoration Day. I have rather felt that the flag should be at the peak because of those whose dying we commemorate rejoiced in seeing it where their valor placed it. We honor them in a joyous, thankful, triumphant commemoration of what they did.James A. Garfield: For love of country, they accepted death.Omar Bradley: Bravery is the capacity to perform properly even when scared half to death.Philip Freneau: But fame is theirs - and future days. On pillard brass shall tell their praiseLise Hand: Thats what it takes to be a hero, a little gem of innocence inside you that makes you want to believe that there still exists a right and wrong, that decency will somehow triumph in the end.Louis Pasteur: It is surmounting difficulties that makes heroes.James Gates Percival: Green sods are all their monuments, and yet it tells a noble r history than pillared piles or the eternal pyramids. Albert Einstein: So long as there are men there will be wars.Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain: Heroism is latent in every human soul. However humble or unknown, they (the veterans) have renounced what are accounted pleasures and cheerfully undertaken all self-denials; privations, toils, dangers, sufferings, sicknesses, mutilations, life-long hurts and losses, death itself? For some great good, dimly seen but dearly held.

Ownership and firm performance in Gulf countries Dissertation

Ownership and firm performance in Gulf countries - Dissertation Example 1.1 Background In 1932, Berle and Means published The Modern Corporation and Private Property which argued that the modern American business of the 1930s was better off if there was a separation of ownership and control. This created the grouping of the representation of shareholders and managers into distinct classes to promote efficiency and effectiveness. The idea was rooted in the fact that there were many large and expanding corporations growing in America who had unaccountable managers. Hence, the popular calls of sociologists (particularly political scientists who believed in the separation of powers) and lawyers (who saw the dangers of rights without obligations to account for the use of rights) culminated in Berle and Means' article which argued for the separation of powers between shareholders and managers in order to create a system of accountability. Indeed, the concept of separating the role of owners from the activities of managers thrived for the decades after the 1930 s. Jensen and Meckling (1976) defined the agency theory as was based on the presumption that there is a conflict of interest in the different aspects of a given company or corporate entity. Shareholders, corporate managers and creditors of the business had different processes interests and visions that they sought to attain by their association with a given corporate entity. In their views, Jensen and Meckling argued that where the interest of managers and other stakeholders can be achieved without attaining the interest of the shareholders or the business. Hence, there is the need for some kind of checks and balances to ensure that the goal of managers are merged with the best interest of the company or the business. Hence, there was the need for some degree of checks and control. However, â€Å"the â€Å"shareholder value† movement of the past generation has succeeded in turning managers into faithful servants of share price maximisation, even when this comes at the expens e of other considerations† (Davis, 2011). In other words, after the 1990s, the main barometer that was used to gauge the efficiency of a manger was his ability to maximise share value returns. This led to the use of negative attitudes and negative approaches to management. These managers sought to use ways and means to maximise share value through the disregard of standards, corrupt practices and other illegitimate methods to ensure that they presented good financial statements that did not necessarily show the real activities in the period in question. The culture of shareholder value maximisation at the expense of important considerations led to major corporate scandals like the Enron scandal which led to the surprising collapse of a company that was known to have healthy annual reports. This led to the popular implementation of corporate governance standards in corporate entities around the world. This has come up as a method of controlling and running entities throughout t he world. After corporate governance became the norm and conventional approach after the major financial crises, most countries and most communities adopted corporate governance systems and structures. The Gulf Corporation Council (GCC) nations naturally applied elements and aspects of corporate governance due to the pressures of globalisation and internationalisation which hit the world in the 1990s and the early part of the

Risk Assessment and Return Memo Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Risk Assessment and Return Memo - Essay Example To create a portfolio, I have selected four stocks of different companies belonging from different companies after analyzing different companies. The investment strategy previously adapted by Casta Bonita Ceramics has been to achieve the highest possible returns. But this strategy of achieving the maximizing returns has a drawback as the management does not consider risk as an important element while investing in different investment opportunities or assets. Therefore the strategy has been changed and Casta Bonita Ceramics would not only analyze the returns of the stock but the risk of the investment as well. I have also followed a similar strategy by identifying the risks as well as the return of the stocks and I have tried to make sure that the portfolio achieves the maximum returns with minimum risk. I have examined different companies and one of the companies that I have considered is the Infoway Computers for investment purpose. By analyzing the company, the return and the fluct uations of the returns are identified and it has been found that the company offers high returns to its shareholders however the risk of the company is also high. Infoway Computers belong to the Information Technology and Telecommunications Industry, however I would still suggest keeping the stocks of Infoway Computers in the portfolio as the company is a large organization and it has been operating for years. Moreover, the company has a wonderful history and has a reputable name in the industry therefore I would recommend to invest in Infoway Computers over other firms in the industry like Transconduit Inc, and One Voice Telecom. Furthermore, I have calculated the beta of the company and after examining the beta of the company and other companies in the industry, my decision has been furthermore justified. Results found from beta also proved and supported by decision to invest in Infoway Computers. Besides this, I also analyzed Grand Capital Insurance, Western Connect Airlines, Des ktop Inc, Leviathan Defense Systems and Goldstein and Delaney Bank for investment opportunities. Western Connect Airlines was offering the lowest return on its stock and the stock had a lower risk when compared with others, therefore I recommended that investing in Western Connect Airlines would be a good idea. Moreover, Leviathan Defense Systems is another company to be invested after analyzing the risk and returns. In my analysis, two companies from the financial and insurance sector were also analyzed; Goldstein and Delaney Bank and Grand Capital Insurance. The reason to include companies from this sector was to make sure that the portfolio is well diversified. However I found out that Goldstein and Delaney Bank should be included in the portfolio as investing in Goldstein and Delaney Bank would reduce the overall risk of the portfolio although the company offers low returns but the risk of the company is also low and therefore it would reduce the overall risk of the portfolio. O ne of the main reasons why I do not want to invest in both the companies of the financial and insurance industry is that I want to diversify by investing in different industry. Moreover, this would allow me to reduce the systematic risk of the industry, although the risk cannot be eliminated completely but it can be reduced and diversifying the industry would be one of the ways to do it. The shares of Desktop Inc offer the highest return to the shareholders at a higher level of risk and this is the reason why I would not recommend